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by meeting three of the nine criteria. Five items show moderate
dependence and seven items indicate a strong dependence. (Not all nine
items apply to each drug. For example, time and effort spent acquiring
a drug are a significant feature of heroin addiction, but have no
meaning in nicotine addiction.)
9 Addiction Criteria
These are the criteria:
* Taking the drug more often or in larger amounts than intended.
* Unsuccessful attempts to quit; persistent desire, craving.
* Excessive time spent in drug seeking.
* Feeling intoxicated at inappropriate times, or feeling withdrawal
  symptoms from a drug at such times.
* Giving up other things for it.
* Continued use, despite knowledge of harm to oneself and others.
* Marked tolerance in which the amount needed to satisfy increases
  at first before leveling off.
* Characteristic withdrawal symptoms for particular drugs.
* Taking the drug to relieve or avoid withdrawal.
How Experts Rate Problem Substances
Dr. Jack E. Henningfield of the National Institute on Drug Abuse and
Dr. Neal L. Benowitz of the University of California at San Francisco
ranked six substances based on five problem areas.
1 = Most serious           6 = Least serious
Henningfield Ratings
Substance  Withdrawal Reinforcement Tolerance Dependence Intoxication
Nicotine       3           4            2         1           5
Heroin         2           2            1         2           2
Cocaine        4           1            4         3           3
Alcohol        1           3            3         4           1
Caffeine       5           6            5         5           6
Marijuana      6           5            6         6           4
Benowitz Ratings
Substance   Withdrawal Reinforcement Tolerance Dependence Intoxication
Nicotine        3*          4            4         1           6
Heroin          2           2            2         2           2
Cocaine         3*          1            1         3           3
Alcohol         1           3            4         4           1
Caffeine        4           5            3         5           5
Marijuana       5           6            5         6           4
* Equal ratings
Withdrawal -  Presence and severity of characteristic withdrawal
              symptoms.
Reinforcement - A measure of the substance's ability, in human and
                animal tests, to get users to take it again and again,
                and in preference to other substances.
Tolerance - How much of the substance is needed to satisfy increasing
            cravings for it, and the level of stable need that is
            eventually reached.
Dependence - How difficult it is for the user to quit, the relapse
             rate, the percentage of people who eventually become
             dependent, the rating users give their own need for the
             substance and the degree to which the substance will be
             used in the face of evidence that it causes harm.
Intoxication - Though not usually counted as a measure of addiction
               in itself, the level of intoxication is associated with
               addiction and increases the personal and social damage
               a substance may do.
Before applying a test of the nine criteria, the expert first
determines if the symptoms have persisted for at least a month or
have occurred repeatedly over a longer period of time.
Asked about the tobacco executives' testimony on addiction, Dr.
Kozlowski said:  "In a way, I can see how they could say that. It
has to do with a mistaken image of what addiction is, and I have
many well-educated, intelligent people say something like that to me.
People often think of a person taking one injection of heroin and
becoming hopelessly addicted for the rest of their lives. That
is wrong."
In addition, he said, when people tend to think of the high that
heroin produces, one that is about as intense as cocaine and alcohol,
they cannot believe cigarettes are in the same category. And they are
not. Even though in large doses nicotine can cause a strong high and
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