Reposted wiith permission of the American Federation of Teachers
http://www/aft.org 
                  A Profile of Japan's Education System
                          College-Bound Students
Japan has a national curriculum that all elementary and secondary schools
must follow. The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (Monbusho) has
complete authority over the content of the curriculum, to the point of
dictating which textbooks should be used for each grade and subject. Some
criticize the Japanese system for being too rigid and too demanding, but
the impressive levels of achievement reached by their students make their
standards worthy of close attention.
One of the most frequently cited reasons for the high achievement levels of
Japanese students is the strong commitment to hard work and excellence
embraced by students and families. This commitment is fueled by a highly
visible link between one's education and one's career. The Japanese know
that doing well in school will pay off, and this attitude is nurtured and
reinforced from a very young age. As is described later in this section,
the competitive atmosphere reaches its peak during the final years of upper
secondary schooling when students begin to prepare for college admission.
All Japanese children between the ages of six and 15 are required by law to
complete both elementary school (Shogakko) and lower secondary school
(Chugakko) or to attend a special school for the blind, deaf or otherwise
disabled. Though it is not compulsory, more than 60 percent of 3- to
5-year-olds attend kindergarten. The curriculum in elementary (grades 1-6)
and lower secondary (grades 7-9) school covers such subjects as Japanese
language, math, social studies, science, art, music, moral education and
physical education. Neither elementary nor lower secondary schools group
students by ability level. In fact, they are prohibited from doing so.
Upper Secondary Schools: Where the Competition Begins
Though high school (Kotogakko) is not compulsory in Japan, close to 95
percent of youngsters attend. Over one-third of high school students attend
private schools, with the rest attending national, regional, and city high
schools, all of which are public.
Unlike elementary and lower secondary schools, admission to high schools is
competitive, based on both grades and achievement tests. There is no single
standardized admissions exam used by high schools. The public schools in
each prefecture (the major subdivision of the Japanese government between
the national and the municipal levels) develop their own exams based on the
national curriculum. Students' scores are sent only to the high schools to
which they have applied and are never released to the students. Each school
conducts its own admissions process using these scores.
Because of differences in their selectivity, Japanese high schools develop
distinct reputations based on the quality of students they accept and
graduate, leading to an informal, but well-known, hierarchy. The most
reputable schools attract and admit the brightest students. And these
schools tend to feed into the best universities, which, in turn, lead to
careers in the most sought after fields and businesses.
Though applying to high schools is competitive, students are normally
guided by their teachers to apply where they will most likely be accepted.
The teacher's role in providing guidance is highly valued, and a large
majority of students take their teachers' advice. The result is that most
students are admitted to the high schools to which they apply.
Though it is clear that the highly competitive nature of the Japanese
education system breeds hard work and high achievement, the system has been
criticized for being too demanding on and stressful for students. Because
examinations play such a key role in high school and college admissions,
preparation for the exams is taken very seriously by students and their
parents. A host of private companies offer an array of afterschool
"cramming" courses called juku to prepare students for the exams and to
provide them with enrichment courses in music and the arts. Most Japanese
consider this a sound investment of both time and money. Students' time for
other after school activities, however, is limited. Between 50 and 60
percent of 7th, 8th and 9th graders supplement their normal schooling with
juku classes in one to three subjects, as do 40 to 50 percent of fifth and
sixth graders. In high school, a significant number of students also attend
such courses.
Although not all Japanese high school students aspire to university study,
the number of students who do seek university admission is quite high
compared to other nations. In 1990, 43 percent of high school students
graduating that year applied to institutions of higher education. Only a
small percentage attended vocational or technical high schools that prepare
them for direct entry into the job market; however, approximately
one-quarter of students in Japanese high schools pursued some vocational
training.
University Entrance Examinations
For Japanese high school students planning to pursue higher education,
their entire schooling is seen as preparation for the entrance examinations
they must pass to enter into college. Students recognize the importance of
these tests on their future and understand that job opportunities and
career advancement are often significantly better for graduates of the best
universities and colleges.
The main requirement for admission to national and public universities in
Japan is passage of a complex, two-tiered examination system. In order to
be eligible to apply to the most prestigious universities, students must
pass the University Entrance Center Examination (UECE), formerly known as
the Joint First Stage Achievement Test (JFSAT). The UECE, based explicitly
on the national curriculum, is the closest thing Japan has to a uniform
national college admission test. It is required by all national and local
public universities, as well as by a few private universities, and consists
of a series of 12 subject-area examinations. Students applying to Tokyo
University are required to take UECE exams in 5 subjects, while applicants
to other universities often take 2 or more exams.
The UECE is taken in January and is the first step for a prospective
university applicant. The next step is to take the separate entrance
examinations given by each university to which the student applies. The
individual entrance examinations are more reflective of the character of
the individual universities and are theoretically designed to identify
students who are suitable for the education these universities provide.
They are also considered more demanding than the UECE. The nature and
content of the exams varies from school to school, and often from
department to department within the same university. As with Japanese high
schools, a clear hierarchy exists at the university level, with some
schools, such as Tokyo University, claiming the highest achieving students.
The entrance examinations from Tokyo University are often considered the
most challenging in the nation.
Competition for college admission is intense in Japan, particularly for the
most reputable schools such as the national universities. And unlike in the
United States, applicants to national universities in Japan must limit
their choices to two institutions. This is because national university
entrance exams are only given twice a year, and these universities give
their exams on the same dates. Private universities and local public
institutions, on the other hand, schedule their exams on alternate dates
and may even admit some students on the basis of grades and recommendations
rather than test scores.
Students who don't get into the school of their choice have the option of
trying again the following year, and for as many years after that as they
choose. Reapplying and retaking the exams is not frowned upon. In fact, it
is encouraged in many ways, and a large number of students do it. Some even
postpone the application process and spend one or more years after high
school as ronin (literally "masterless wandering samurai") preparing to
take the next year's entrance exams. As for middle and high school
students, there are a host of private companies for ronin to choose from
that will help prepare them for the exams they will need to take to gain
admittance into the college of their choice.
The material covered in these courses, which are known as yobiko, is
entirely aimed at preparing students for university entrance examinations.
In addition to reviewing the content to be covered, they also provide
students with test-taking strategies. The extra year or two of preparation
often pays off handsomely when students retake the entrance examinations.
Approximately 50 percent of those admitted to Tokyo University each year
are ronin.
Japanese high school students graduating in 1990 represented 88 percent of
18-year-olds and 94 percent of the cohort who entered high school in 1987.
Forty-three percent of these high school graduates applied to universities
during their senior year, and over 60 percent were accepted. Many others
(about 15 percent of the age group) decided to retake the entrance
examinations after studying for at least one year as ronin.
How Are Japanese University Entrance Examinations Developed and Graded?
The Monbusho contains a special agency, the National Center for University
Entrance Examinations, which is responsible for developing and
administering the annual University Entrance Center Examination taken by
national and public university applicants and applicants to a small number
of private universities. The Center manages all aspects of the UECE
examination process from registering applicants to distributing and grading
the completed exams.
The UECE exams themselves are developed by about 20 different subject area
committees, members of which are selected from a list of university faculty
members nominated by their deans or presidents. In addition to formulating
the questions, these committees ensure that the examinations conform to the
national curriculum, are uniform in style and difficulty level and are
consistent across subjects. Representatives from professional organizations
of subject-matter teachers meet annually with the UECE committees to review
and discuss the content, difficulty and format of the exams.
The second stage of tests taken by college-bound students are developed by
the individual universities, each of which has its own process for doing
so. At Tokyo University, where the exam reprinted in this volume was
developed, the university entrance examinations are written by
subject-matter committees comprised of professors from various departments.
The professors pay special attention that the test questions fall within
the scope of the national curriculum. Thus, in principle, all questions are
answerable if the candidates have a thorough command of the national
curriculum. The questions, however, usually require a considerable level of
academic sophistication. As a result, juku classes may help students to
perform better the complicated combination and application of knowledge
needed to answer some of the questions. The exams are scored by Tokyo
University professors.
Chuck Beams
Fidonet - 1:2608/70
cbeams@future.dreamscape.com
___
* UniQWK #5290* Smile they said, it could be worse.  So I did and it was.
--- Maximus 2.01wb
---------------