their children a sense of frustration, fear, or isolation from
their own current or past school-related experiences (Calabrese,
1990; Epstein, 1990).
School administrators and teachers must TAKE THE INITIATIVE IN
BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS with at-risk parents by conveying positive
messages about children and providing transportation, child care,
flexible conference times, and translators if necessary.  School
policies "are more important than race, parent education, family
size, marital status and even grade level in determining whether
parents continue to be a part of their children's education"
(Epstein, 1990, p. 109).
Parents can learn how to lead the effort for community-based
approaches which engage youth in positive, growth-producing
activities, affirm academic achievement, and foster anti-drug
attitudes and behaviors among youth and adults (Falco, 1992).
The _collaborative, community-wide efforts_ which reduce risks of
substance use are also a fundamental element in successful
programs for preventing adolescent pregnancy, juvenile
delinquency, and school failure (Hamburg, 1992; Paget, 1988;
Schorr, 1988).
Parent education and support PROMOTE POSITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
OUTCOMES for children and youth.  The long-term effects of
effective parent education and support are observable in the
child who is ready for school despite exposure to multiple risk
factors.  Success is a decline in emergency room visits for
abuse-related injuries in a population of children at risk.
Progress is a collaborative effort among parents, teachers and
neighborhood leaders to provide programming that is life-
enhancing for _all_ youth in the community.
Effective programs MATCH THE CONTENT AND MODE OF DELIVERY to the
needs of the audience (Powell, 1988).  The content of parent
education and support programs should be based on normal
developmental processes identified in the research literature and
~ when appropriate ~ customized to special needs.  For example,
considerable study of children and parents of divorce suggests
specific developmental tasks which should be addressed for
children of different ages and for parents (Stolberg, 1988).
Classes and group discussions, which are common formats with
middle-class parents, may not be as effective with low-income
parents (Chilman, 1973).  Adolescent mothers respond to home
visiting programs (Olds, Henderson, Chamberlin & Tatelbaum,
1986), but mothers with some college experience do not appear to
gain significantly from home-visits promoting cognitive
development in low birthweight or premature children (Brooks-
Gunn, Gross, Kraemer, Spiker & Shapiro, 1992).  A program which
is successful in one community may need to be altered to meet
local circumstances in another (Halpern & Larner, 1988).
Home visiting appears to be the most EFFECTIVE WAY TO TEACH
PARENTING SKILLS to high-risk parents who suffer from multiple
risks (Hamburg, 1992).  Home visiting is an appropriate mode of
educating and supporting parents with multiple risks because they
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