behavior_ and responding at a level of control which is neither
restrictive nor permissive allows children to explore their
worlds within safe boundaries.  Optimally, parental level of
control decreases as children develop competency in regulating
their own behavior (Peterson & Hann, in press).
Rigid, coercive or punitive parenting styles appears to foster
acting out behaviors.  Youth reared in nonresponsive families may
become involved in antisocial activities.  A parenting style that
is intrusive and overly protective hinders the development of
individuality and independence (Peterson & Hann, in press).  A
permissive parenting style may lead to behavior problems during
adolescence (Baumrind, 1991).
A significant body of literature suggests that the presence of a
father figure is essential to a child's emotional and physical
development (Pruett, 1993).  Father-absence is associated with
antisocial behavior in children (Rickel & Langner, 1985),
negative emotional consequences for both girls and boys (Parish &
Nunn, 1983), detrimental effects on cognitive abilities (Shinn,
1978), and difficulties in masculine sex role development in male
children (Stevenson & Black, 1988).
Links between father-absence and maladjustments in children are
stronger when the absence occurs before the child reaches age
five (Pedersen, 1976), but research findings are unclear about
differences due to death versus voluntary reasons for absence.
Family stress related to the loss of a father's economic support
may play a greater role in children's difficulties than the
absence itself (Pedersen, 1976).  When mothers perceive that the
father's absence results in less social support, the impact of
father absence appears to have the greatest impact (Hiew, 1992).
PARENT EDUCATION AND SUPPORT
THE GOAL OF PARENT EDUCATION is to enhance parent-child
relationships by altering non-productive or harmful behaviors and
reinforcing supportive behaviors of parents.  Effective parent
education programs reinforce positive parenting skills and help
people gain knowledge and develop attitudes and behaviors that
promote constructive childrearing.  However, increases in
knowledge do not necessarily bring about changes in attitude
(Roosa, 1984), nor do changes in attitude assure that a desired
behavior will occur (Harman & Brim, 1980).  To be cost-effective,
a program should reinforce strengths and bring about durable
positive changes in parental behavior.
THE GOAL OF PARENT SUPPORT is to strengthen parents' capability
to draw upon resources outside the family for their own well-
being and the well-being of their children and youth.  Helping
parents develop long-term supportive relationships and to access
other community resources are two aspects of parent support.
Helping parents strengthen the home-school link is another facet
of parent support.  Parents who have little education, have had
bad school experiences, or do not speak English may be
intimidated by school authorities.  They also may transmit to
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