Reconstructing the Menu of a Pub in Ancient Pompeii
Eat like a first-century Roman, using recent archaeological discoveries as your
guide.
by Farrell Monaco January 26, 2021
An ancient Pompeiian may have enjoyed this meal of braised duck. Farrell Monaco

In the second century, Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to the Roman historian 
acitus, recounting the early stages of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
 From his villa in Misenum, across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, he remem
ered seeing a dark cloud, shaped like an umbrella pine tree, filling the sky ov
r the mountains flanking the northern edge of Sarno River plain. What followed 
as something that no one in the region was prepared for. A day after Pliny obse
ved that dark cloud, a small tavern in a northeastern section of Pompeii collap
ed, along with the rest of the town, under the weight of pumice and ash. This w
s later followed by a fast-moving pyroclastic surge of hot gas, volcanic debris
 and ash that signaled the volcano’s final devastating blow: Those who stayed
behind in Pompeii and Herculaneum were killed instantly by this infernal wave o
 heat, estimated to have been as high as 900° Fahrenheit. The barkeep of this 
avern was one of these poor souls. He didn’t make it out of the establishment
in time and perished in the cot where he slept, along with a dog and a man who 
ad taken refuge inside the tavern with them.
The thermopolium's counter with animal frescoes and embedded dolia.
The thermopolium’s counter with animal frescoes and embedded dolia. Courtesy 
f the Archaeological Park of Pompeii/Luigi Spina

In December 2020, archaeologists at the Archaeological Park of Pompeii announce
 that they had found the remains of these two men and the dog as they were exca
ating this ancient food establishment, known as a thermopolium. Located in Regi
 V, on the western edge of the unexcavated northeastern section of Pompeii, the
well-preserved thermopolium’s counter, ceramic storage containers (known as d
lia), and wall art offer some of the most pristine and moving finds to be disco
ered in recent years at the site.

To begin, the space’s large masonry counter was adorned with frescoes depicti
g scenes of daily life inside the venue, such as the flagons and cooking implem
nts hung above the bar and the image of a porter making a delivery, as well as 
 portrait of a Greek sea nymph riding a seahorse and images of mallards, a chic
en, and a dog. Leaning against the bar were several ceramic wine jars, known as
amphorae, which originally housed locally produced and imported Greek wines. La
tly, some of the dolia contained the bones of several types of animals and one 
olium contained remains belonging to one of the men (in the case of the latter,
it’s likely they were placed there by 18th-century looters).

The human remains found at the site belonged to the barkeep and one other perso
.
The human remains found at the site belonged to the barkeep and one other perso
. Courtesy of the Archaeological Park of Pompeii/Luigi Spina

As a classical archaeologist whose research centers on food and food preparatio
 in the Roman Mediterranean, I am overjoyed by finds like these, as the informa
ion obtained from them shines a bright light on the daily lives of classes of R
man society that are poorly represented in ancient literary sources: slaves and
average, working Romans. Spaces like this thermopolium provide archaeologists l
ke me with a realistic portrayal of what Roman food culture was like in compari
on to sensational portrayals of Roman food culture, such as those found in sati
ical literary sources like Petronius’s “Trimalchio’s Banquet” or portra
ed in opulent frescoes like those adorning the dining-room walls of the House o
 the Vettii, an exceptionally well-preserved luxury domus.

In contrast, this thermopolium invites us into an archaeological environment th
t gives an indication of where many everyday Pompeiians enjoyed cooked meals. A
cording to Dr. Anna Maria Sodo, director and archaeology officer of the Antiqua
ium of Boscoreale, in the Vesuvian area alone, only 40 percent of the urban dwe
lings of the working poor and 66 percent of the middle-class homes had fixed he
rths for cooking. To meet this high demand, there were at least 80 food and bev
rage outlets at Pompeii (the site has yet to be fully excavated). But what type
 of foods did these thermopolia serve to the everyday citizens?
A fresco at Casa dei Vettii, a luxurious home in Pompeii.
A fresco at Casa dei Vettii, a luxurious home in Pompeii. Farrell Monaco

To recreate a meal that comes close to what may have been served here, one can 
egin by looking at the archaeological remains found inside. This includes the i
agery in the frescoes painted on the service counter and the contents of the am
horae and the dolia. One dolium contained the bones of duck, swine, goat, and f
sh, as well as shells from land snails. The duck bones in particular correspond
to the fresco of two mallards painted on the front of the counter, perhaps as a
pictorial menu for the illiterate majority at the time. While some scholars hav
 proposed that these faunal remains may imply that first-century Pompeiians con
umed stews or soups composed of a motley of creatures, aside from a few Apician
patinae, this would be an anomaly in ancient Roman cooking. As dolia were prima
ily used for dry and liquid food storage, and not for cooking, it is possible t
at the bones and shells found in the dolium represented food waste from an in-h
use butchery, food preparation that took place behind the counter, or post-cons
mption food waste left behind by the customers.

It is also possible that these remains were evidence of something else entirely
 What if these shells and bones were destined for a master stock that was used 
n the dishes being served in the establishment? After all, this thermopolium wa
 situated near a fountain and water tower, providing access that would facilita
e making a bulk broth on a daily basis. References to such dishes appear across
historic texts: In the first century BC, Republican statesman Cicero complains 
f the “reek and fume” of stew-houses in his biting invective Against Piso, 
hile Athenaeus of Naucratis, a third-century Greco-Egyptian writer, refers to f
od in the “common messes” as “nothing but broth and chunks of meat.” Se
ond-century historian Dio Cassius even recounts an occasion when Emperor Claudi
s “abolished the taverns where [the populace] were wont to gather and drink, 
nd commanded that no boiled meat or hot water should be sold.”
The mallards, left, might be serving as a pictorial menu here.
The mallards, left, might be serving as a pictorial menu here. Courtesy of the 
rchaeological Park of Pompeii/Luigi Spina

Dio Cassius’s description is telling: It’s highly likely that the space exc
vated in Regio V was, in fact, a tavern. Despite the fact that many publication
 refer to the dining establishments at Pompeii as thermopolia, the Loeb Classic
l Library records only two instances of the term being used. Experts such as To
nes Kleberg, Mary Beard, Steven Ellis, and Claire Holleran have all noted that 
he more frequently found term in the Latin literary record, popina, is a more s
itable name for these types of spaces. Typically translated as “tavern,” it
��s sometimes translated as “public-house,” or, in the more modern vernacul
r, pub. To imagine the atmosphere of ancient Roman taverns, one can simply look
to the frescoes that still adorn the walls of such spaces in Pompeii, depicting
scenes of drinking, canoodling, gambling, and horseplay.
A fresco depicting tavern life in Regio VI of Pompeii.
A fresco depicting tavern life in Regio VI of Pompeii. ArchaiOptix/CC BY-SA 4.0

In consideration of some of this evidence, if we were to hypothesize that what 
e’ve read in the Latin literary record about “boiled meat,” “broth and 
hunks of meat,” and the “reek and fume” of stew houses refers to a popina
 then we can also speculate that the bone and shell matter found in the dolium 
n the newly unearthed popina in Regio V was destined for broth. Does all of thi
 evidence suggest that meat boiled in broth at the corner popina is the Roman v
rsion of pub grub? I believe it does, and this now brings us much closer to pro
osing a first-century Roman meal that could allow us to explore this space usin
 another investigative tool: our taste buds.
A Pompeiian Pub Lunch:
Master Stock Braised Duck With Mensae
(Serves two.)
Sprigs of oregano garnish the dish.
Sprigs of oregano garnish the dish. Farrell Monaco

In his cookbook De Re Coquinaria, the first-century gourmand Marcus Gavius Apic
us prepares duck or crane in broth in the following manner. It may seem a bit u
market for a corner popina, but it is simple by Apician standards and features 
ome of the commonly used ingredients and flavor enhancers of the time.

Wash and dress (the bird) and put in a large cooking pot; add water, salt, dill
 cook it until it is firm, halfway through the cooking process; take it out and
put it in another pan with oil and liquamen and with a bundle of oregano and co
iander. When it is almost cooked add a little defrutum to add colour. Pound pep
er, lovage, cumin, coriander, laser root, rue, caroenum, honey, pour on some of
the cooking liquor, flavour with vinegar. Pour this back into the pan so that i
 warms through. Thicken with starch. Put the bird on a serving dish and pour th
 sauce over.

To accompany the main dish, I chose to include mensae, a flatbread that was onc
 thought to be used as both a plate and a utensil. Virgil describes enjoying me
sae this way in The Aeneid: After Aeneas and his men eat their meals off the fl
tbread, they remark, “Oh, look! we are eating our tables too!”
The foculus (left) and olla over the fire.
The foculus (left) and olla over the fire. Farrell Monaco
Equipment

I decided to use my terracotta foculus (portable brazier) and ollae (cooking po
s) for this recipe in order to simulate the original cooking technologies and t
e “reek and fume” of Cicero’s stew-houses to the best of my ability. But 
y portable kitchen may actually be more suited to one of the slaves in Juvenal�
�s Satires than as a substitute for a fixed hearth in a popina. Home cooks can 
se a clay pot and tripod over barbecue coals or wood, or regular cookware on th
ir conventional stoves to achieve a similar result.

I baked some of my flatbreads sub testu—beneath a ceramic testum or clibanus�
�and some were prepared on a griddle, a technique referenced by Athenaeus in th
 Deipnosophistae. Part of understanding the working and sensory environment ins
de a popina involves using the same cooking technologies and the same fuels. Ho
e cooks using modern technologies, however, will have little difficulty making 
his recipe at home on a stovetop or grill, but you won’t come away from it sm
lling of woodsmoke and duck fat, as I did.
The bread baking sub testu.
The bread baking sub testu. Farrell Monaco
Ingredients

For the braised duck:
2 duck breasts or duck legs
A small bunch of dill or 1 teaspoon (2 grams) of dried dill
Pinch of salt
2 tablespoons (20 grams) of olive oil
2 teaspoons (6 grams) of colatura d’alici or Red Boat fish sauce
A small bunch of fresh oregano or 1 teaspoon (2 grams) of dried oregano
A small bunch of fresh coriander or 1 teaspoon (2 grams) of dried coriander
3 tablespoons (60 grams) defrutum/caroenum (which you can make with this recipe
 or store-bought grape molasses
1 tablespoon (20 grams) red wine vinegar
1 teaspoon (5 grams) honey
1 teaspoon (5 grams) diced dandelion greens (cicoria, in Italian) to substitute
for rue (which is potentially toxic in high volumes)
½ teaspoon (2 grams) each of dried ground black pepper; lovage; cumin; coriand
r; asafoetida (also known as hing and available at most Asian and Indian market
 or health-food stores) to substitute for laser (silphium)
1 tablespoon (15 grams) flour
1 tablespoon (15 grams) duck fat, lard, or unsalted butter
Sprigs of fresh oregano (for garnish)

For the mensae:
2 cups (250 grams) of stone-ground whole wheat flour
1/4 cup (60 grams) of sourdough bread starter
¾ cup (160 grams) of water
½ teaspoon (2 grams) salt
Olive oil (if frying and not grilling)

No starter on hand? Make a small sponge composed of equal parts flour and water
with 1 teaspoon (5 grams) of commercial baker’s yeast. Use ¼ cup or 60 grams
of this sponge for the recipe.
The duck gets seared with oil, fish sauce, and herbs.
The duck gets seared with oil, fish sauce, and herbs. Farrell Monaco
Preparation

    Prepare the dough for the mensae: Dissolve the starter in the water, combin
 with the flour and salt, then knead the dough, cover it, and let it rest for o
e hour in a warm place.
    Place the duck in a pot, submerge it in water, add the dill and pinch of sa
t, and bring it to a boil. Cover and simmer on medium-low for 45 minutes to cre
te a light broth. If you’re feeling brave, add a few snail shells, goat bones
 and pork bones to the broth for added flavor.
    After the mensae dough has rested, cut the dough in half, and fold each hal
 into a ball. Using a rolling pin or the palm of your hand, flatten each ball i
to a disk. Cover with a damp tea towel and let the dough rest for another 30 mi
utes.
    In a pan, combine the olive oil and fish sauce with the oregano and coriand
r, then heat on medium-high.
    Remove the duck from the broth pot and sear it in the pan along with the oi
, fish sauce, and herbs. Drizzle with half of the defrutum (or grape molasses).
Once the duck has browned, remove it from the pan and set it aside. Keep the dr
ppings in the pan.
    In a bowl, combine the remaining defrutum (or grape molasses) with the red 
ine vinegar, honey, diced dandelion greens (or cicoria), ground black pepper, l
vage, cumin, coriander, and asafoetida and whisk it all together.
    In the pan, add the flour and duck fat (or lard or unsalted butter) to the 
rippings and make a roux by dissolving the flour and fat together on low heat. 
se a whisk to prevent clumping.
    Combine the mixture of honey, vinegar, and spices with 1 cup (215 grams) of
the duck broth and slowly add the liquid to the roux in the pan, on low heat, w
isking it together until it begins to thicken into a sauce.
    Cook both mensae by either heating a grill or a frying pan with olive oil, 
n medium-high. Place each mensa onto the hot grill or pan and grill it until it
starts to inflate. Then flip it over and grill the other side until golden brow
. Lower your heat if the mensae are browning too quickly before inflating.
    Place a large dollop of the sauce on each serving dish. Slice the duck meat
into bite-size morsels and place them on top of the sauce. Drizzle with additio
al broth to surround the duck morsels and garnish with sprigs of fresh oregano.
    Slice the grilled mensae into wedges and serve them alongside the sliced du
k to soak up the sauce and the broth.

Now take your bowl of braised duck and your bread, and imagine you’re in a Po
peiian popina. Find a stool where there’s enough light to see the food in fro
t of you. You may have to sidle up next to a stranger so make sure your coin pu
se is secure. Best make this your last cup of wine. The ground always trembles 
eneath your feet when you’ve had too much and it’s doing so right now. Not 
o worry, the broth and bread will sober you up just enough to stagger out the f
ont door past that dog that won’t stop barking at something off in the distan
e. Scratch his head to distract him, then say goodbye. Time to go while there�
s still daylight. Is it daylight? The air outside has a strange yellow hue to i
, and an acrid smell, and the earth feels as if it’s still trembling periodic
lly as you steady yourself on the edge of a fountain. It’s probably just the 
ine but you’d better get home quickly. A dark cloud is forming above Vesuvio 
nd it looks as if a storm is on its way.

* Correction: This article originally stated that Pliny wrote the letter in 79 
D. It was several decades after the eruption, around 106 AD.

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